Communicative language teaching

Communicative language teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as “communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages” or simply the “communicative approach”.

Classroom activities used in CLT

Example activities

* Role play
* Interviews
* Information gap
* Games
* Language exchange
* Surveys
* Pair work
* Learning by teaching

However, not all courses that utilize the communicative language approach will restrict their activities solely to these. Some courses will have the students take occasional grammar quizzes, or prepare at home using non-communicative drills, for instance.

Critiques of CLT

One of the most famous attacks on communicative language teaching was offered by Michael Swan in the English Language Teaching Journal on 1985[2]. Henry Widdowson responded in defense of CLT, also in the ELT Journal (1985 39(3):158-161). More recently other writers (e.g. Bax[3]) have critiqued CLT for paying insufficient attention to the context in which teaching and learning take place, though CLT has also been defended against this charge (e.g. Harmer 2003[4]).

Often, the communicative approach is deemed a success if the teacher understands the student. But, if the teacher is from the same region as the student, the teacher will understand errors resulting from an influence from their first language. Native speakers of the target language may still have difficulty understanding them. This observation may call for new thinking on and adaptation of the communicative approach. The adapted communicative approach should be a simulation where the teacher pretends to understand only what any regular speaker of the target language would and reacts accordingly.

Sejarah sepeda

Sejarah sepeda bermula di Eropa. Sekitar tahun 1790, sebuah sepeda pertama berhasil dibangun di Inggris. Cikal bakal sepeda ini diberi nama Hobby Horses dan Celeriferes.

Keduanya belum punya mekanisme sepeda zaman sekarang, batang kemudi dan sistem pedal. Yang ada hanya dua roda pada sebuah rangka kayu. Bisa dibayangkan, betapa canggung dan besar tampilan kedua sepeda tadi. Meski begitu, mereka cukup menolong orang-orang – pada masa itu – untuk berjalan. Penemuan fenomenal dalam kisah masa lalu sepeda tercipta berkat Baron Karl Von Drais.

Von Drais yang tercatat sebagai mahasiswa matematik dan mekanik di Heidelberg, Jerman berhasil melakukan terobosan penting, yang ternyata merupakan peletak dasar perkembangan sepeda selanjutnya. Oleh Von Drais, Hobby Horse dimodifikasi hingga mempunyai mekanisme kemudi pada bagian roda depan. Dengan mengambil tenaga gerak dari kedua kaki, Von Drais mampu meluncur lebih cepat saat berkeliling kebun. Ia sendiri menyebut kendaraan ini dengan nama, Draisienne. Beritanya sendiri dimuat di koran lokal Jerman pada 1817.

Proses penciptaan selanjutnya dilakukan Kirkpatrick Macmillan. Pada tahun 1839, ia menambahkan batang penggerak yang menghubungkan antara roda belakang dengan ban depan Draisienne. Untuk menjalankannya, tinggal mengayuh pedal yang ada. James Starley mulai membangun sepeda di Inggris di tahun 1870. Ia memproduksi sepeda dengan roda depan yang sangat besar (high wheel bicycle) sedang roda belakangnya sangat kecil. Sepeda jenis ini sangat populer di seluruh Eropa. Sebab Starley berhasil membuat terobosan dengan mencipta roda berjari-jari dan metode cross-tangent. Sampai kini, kedua teknologi itu masih terus dipakai. Buntutnya, sepeda menjadi lebih ringan untuk dikayuh.

Sayangnya, sepeda dengan roda yang besar itu memiliki banyak kekurangan. Ini menjadi dilema bagi orang-orang yang berperawakan mungil dan wanita. Karena posisi pedal dan jok yang cukup tinggi, mereka mengeluhkan kesulitan untuk mengendarainya. Sampai akhirnya, keponakan James Starley, John Kemp Starley menemukan solusinya. Ia menciptakan sepeda yang lebih aman untuk dikendarai oleh siapa saja pada 1886. Sepeda ini sudah punya rantai untuk menggerakkan roda belakang dan ukuran kedua rodanya sama.

Namun penemuan tak kalah penting dilakukan John Boyd Dunlop pada 1888. Dunlop berhasil menemukan teknologi ban sepeda yang bisa diisi dengan angin (pneumatic tire). Dari sinilah, awal kemajuan sepeda yang pesat. Beragam bentuk sepeda berhasil diciptakan. Seperti diketahui kemudian, sepeda menjadi kendaraan yang mengasyikkan.
Di Indonesia, perkembangan sepeda banyak dipengaruhi oleh kaum penjajah, terutama Belanda. Mereka memboyong sepeda produksi negerinya untuk dipakai berkeliling menikmati segarnya alam Indonesia. Kebiasaan itu menular pada kaum pribumi berdarah biru. Akhirnya, sepeda jadi alat transpor yang bergengsi.

Pada masa berikutnya, saat peran sepeda makin terdesak oleh beragam teknologi yang disandang kendaraan bermesin (mobil dan motor), sebagian orang mulai tertarik untuk melestarikan sejarah lewat koleksi sepeda antik. Rata-rata, sepeda lawas mereka keluaran pabrikan Eropa. Angka tahunnya antara 1940 sampai 1950-an. Dan mereka sangat cermat dalam merawatnya.

Di masyarakat kita, sepeda lawas itu dikenal dengan beberapa sebutan, seperti ontel, jengki, kumbang dan sundung. Kalau jengki itu kan asalnya dari kata jingke (bahasa Betawi, artinya berjinjit), jadi waktu naiknya kita harus berjingke saking tingginya. Kalau ontel, ya artinya diontel atau dikayuh.

Total Phsycal Respon

Total Physical Response

Total physical response (TPR) is a method developed by Dr. James J. Asher, a professor emeritus of psychology at San José State University, to aid learning second languages. The method relies on the assumption that when learning a second or additional language, language is internalized through a process of codebreaking similar to first language development and that the process allows for a long period of listening and developing comprehension prior to production. Students respond to commands that require physical movement. TPR is primarily intended for ESL/EAL teachers,although the method is used in teaching other languages as well.The method became popular in the 1970s and attracted the attention or allegiance of some teachers, but it has not received generalized support from mainstream educators. According to Asher, TPR is based on the premise that the human brain has a biological program for acquiring any natural language on earth - including the sign language of the deaf. The process is visible when we observe how infants internalize their first language. It looks to the way that children learn their native language. Communication between parents and their children combines both verbal and physical aspects. The child responds physically to the speech of their parent. The responses of the child are in turn positively reinforced by the speech of the parent. For many months the child absorbs the language without being able to speak. It is during this period that the internalization and codebreaking occurs. After this stage the child is able to reproduce the language spontaneously. With TPR the language teacher tries to mimic this process in class. The method also promises double efficiency in terms of rate of learning, according to several studies in the literature and referenced in the above book.

Classroom Usage
In the classroom the teacher and students take on roles similar to that of the parent and child respectively. Students must respond physically to the words of the teacher. The activity may be a simple game such as Simon Says or may involve more complex grammar and more detailed scenarios. TPR can be used to practice and teach various things. It is well suited to teaching classroom language and other vocabulary connected with actions. It can be used to teach imperatives and various tenses and aspects. It is also useful for story-telling.Because of its participatory approach, TPR may also be a useful alternative teaching strategy for students with dyslexia or related learning disabilities, who typically experience difficulty learning foreign languages with traditional classroom instruction.
According to its proponents, it has a number of advantages: Students will enjoy getting up out of their chairs and moving around. Simple TPR activities do not require a great deal of preparation on the part of the teacher. TPR is aptitude-free, working well with a mixed ability class, and with students having various disabilities. It is good for kinæsthetic learners who need to be active in the class. Class size need not be a problem, and it works effectively for children and adults.
However, it is recognized that TPR is most useful for beginners, though it can be used at higher levels where preparation becomes an issue for the teacher. It does not give students the opportunity to express their own thoughts in a creative way. Further, it is easy to overuse TPR-- "Any novelty, if carried on too long, will trigger adaptation." It can be a challenge for shy students. Additionally, the nature of TPR places an unnaturally heavy emphasis on the use of the imperative mood, that is to say commands such as "sit down" and "stand up". These features are of limited utility to the learner, and can lead to a learner appearing rude when attempting to use his new language. Of course, as a TPR class progresses, group activities and descriptions can be used which continue the basic concepts of TPR into full communication situations.

Prosesi Pernikahan adat sunda

Perkawinan adalah prosesi yang paling sakral...dan setiap daerah mamiliki ritual masing. Demikian pula pada upacara perkawinan adat Sunda di Jawa Barat, ada hal-hal yang masih tetap dipertahankan, namun ada pula yang sudah mulai dihilangkan atau dikurangi intensitasnya. Misalnya saja tata cara adat sewaktu melamar, atau nanyaan, nyawer, huap lingkung, seserahan dan sebagainya. Kalaulah ada, tapi sudah mengalami perobahan atau setidak-tidaknya disesuaikan dengan lingkungan jaman, kemampuan pemangku hajat, serta situasi dan kondisi setempat.

Dalam upacara perkawinan adat Sunda, pada hari perkawinan atau pernikahan, calon pengantin pria diantar dengan iring-iringan dari suatu tempat yang telah di tentukan menuju ke rumah calon pengantin wanita. Bila pe ngantin pria berdekatan rumah dengan pengantin wanita maka calon pengantin pria langsung menuju ke rumah calon pengan tin wanita.

Iring-iringan rombongan calon pengantin pria di jemput oleh pihak calon pengantin wanita. Dalam iring-iring an tersebut calon pengantin pria dipayungi. Hal ini disebabkan lazimnya upacara pernikahan dilangsungkan di rumah orang tua calon pengantin wanita. Pada upacara pernikahan terdapat dua bagian upacara yaitu upacara akad nikah dan upacara adat pernikahan.

Sebelum acara akad nikah dimulai, terlebih dahulu diada kan upacara penjemputan calon pengantin pria. Hal ini ada lah sebagai adat sopan santun atau tatakrama yang telah menjadi kebiasaan umum, yaitu adanya saling menghar gai. Untuk persiapan penjemputan, orang tua calon pengan tin wanita membentuk panitia yang terdiri dari dua kelom pok, yaitu:

Kelompok I terdiri dari: 1. Seorang membawa payung dan lengser; 2. Seorang membawa baki berisi mangle atau rangkaian bunga melati sebagai kalung. 3. Dua mojang membawa tempat lilin. 4. Dua mojang membawa bokor berisi perlengkapan upaca ra sawer dan nincak endog. 5. Dua bujang sebagai pengawal (gulang-gulang)/ jagasatru.

Kelompok II terdiri dari:
1. Para mojang (dara atau gadis) dan bujang remaja ber baris di sisi kanan kiri pintu halaman yang akan dila lui oleh rombongan calon pengantin pria sampai ke de pan pintu rumah.
2. Rombongan calon pengantin pria tiba, kemudian mereka dijemput di luar halaman oleh rombongan yang dipim pin lengser.

Pembawa payung segera memayungi calon pengantin pria dengan didampingi oleh dua gulang-gu lang. Di sebelah depannya lagi seorang dayang berjalan membawa baki yang berisi kalungan bunga. Paling de pan ialah lengser yang biasanya berjalan sambil mena ri dengan diiringi oleh alunan gamelan degung.

Mereka berjalan bersama-sama menurut irama game lan menuju pintu halaman rumah. Di pintu gerbang halaman rumah, rombongan berhenti sebentar. Orang tua calon pengantin wanita telah siap ber ada di sana. Setelah calon pengantin pria datang, ibu calon pengantin wanita mengalungkan bunga kepada ca Ion menantunya. Selanjutnya rombongan bergerak lagi sambil di-taburi aneka ragam bunga oleh para mojang dan bujang yang berderet di kedua sisi jalan.

Dengan didampingi oleh calon mertuanya, pengantin pria dibawa masuk ke ruangan akad nikah dan dipersi lakan duduk di kursi yang telah disiapkan. Selanjutnya pembawa acara mempersilakan kedua orang tua calon pengantin, saksi, petugas dari Kantor Urusan Agama serta beberapa orang tua dari kedua belah pihak yang di anggap perlu, untuk duduk di tempat yang telah disedia kan. Calon pengantin wanita dipersilakan duduk di samping calon suaminya yang selanjutnya segera di lanjutkan upacara Akad Nikah.

Menurut peraturan agama, perkawinan dianggap sah apabi la pada waktu akad nikah dihadiri oleh: 1. Kedua calon pengantin; 2. Wali, yaitu bapak dari kedua calon pengantin atau wakil yang ditunjuk olehnya; 3. Saksi, sedikitnya dua orang; 4. Petugas khusus dari urusan keagamaan yaitu Penghulu, Pastur/Pendeta yang akan mengesahkan perkawinan.

Sebenarnya untuk agama Islam dapat dilaksanakan di Kantor Urusan Agama Islam atau di mesjid tetapi boleh juga dilaksa nakan di rumah orang tua calon pengantin wanita. Adakalanya calon pengantin wanita tidak perlu ditemukan pada waktu akad nikah. Untuk calon pengantin yang beragama Kristen harus dilaksanakan di ge reja.

Setelah semua persiapan selesai dan tertib, protokol/pem bawa acara menyerahkan acara akad nikah kepada petugas KUA. Juru rias pengantin mengerudungi kepala kedua calon pengantin dengan sehelai kerudung putih. Demikianlah akad nikah mulai berlangsung dengan dipimpin oleh petugas KUA.

Tata upacara akad nikah telah diatur oleh petugas KUA. Da lam upacara akad nikah ini tuan rumah hanya mempersiapkan tempat upacara saja dan memberikan sejumlah uang adminis trasi sesuai dengan ketentuan umum.

Mas kawin bagi masyarakat Sunda tidak terlalu diutama kan, dan hal ini tergantung kemampuan calon pengantin pria dan biasanya telah dirundingkan pada waktu melamar atau pada waktu seserahan.
Adapun mas kawin calon pengantin pria dapat berbentuk uang, barang seperti emas, alat-alat sembayang atau Kitab Suci dan lain-lain. Dengan demikian upacara akad nikah selesai, ditutup dengan doa dan ucapan terima kasih kepada Penghulu, Pastor atau Pendeta dan para saksi-saksi.

Community language learning

Community language learning (CLL) is an approach in which students work together to develop what aspects of a language they would like to learn. The teacher acts as a counsellor and a paraphraser, while the learner acts as a collaborator. Community language learning methode take its principles from de general Counselling – Learning approach developed by A Charles Currant. Curran studied adult learning for many years. He was also Influeced by Carl Rogers humanistic psykology ( Rogers 1951 ; brown 1994). And he found that adults often free threatened by a new learning situation. Tey are Thhretened by the change inherent by a new learning and by the fear that they will appear foolish.

A languagge counselor does not mean someone trained in psycology ; it means some one who is skillfull understander of the struggle students face as they atempt to internalized another language. The teacher who can understand can indicate his acceptance of the student. By understanding students fears and being sensitive to them, can help sstudents to overcome their negative feeling and turn them into positive energy further their learning .

There are 5 stages of development in this method.
1.“Birth” stage: feeling of security and belonging are established.
2.As the learner’s ability improve, they achieve a measure of independence from the parent.
3.Learners can speak independently.
4.The learners are secure enough to take criticism and being corrected.
5.The child becomes an adult and becomes the knower.
And the goals for the teacher who use the community langeuage learning methode want their students to learn how used the target language commuticatively in addition , they want their students about their own learning , to take increasing responsibility for it, and to learn how to learn from one another. All of these objectives can be accomplished in a nondefensive manner if a teacher and learner(s) treat each other as whole persons, valuing thought and feelings.

Tips memilih baju untuk postur badan lebar

uhhhhhhhh soal berat badan sangat sensitif bagi wanitaa... karena percaya diri seorang wanita di pengaruhi juga dengan berat badan..... terkadang sampai stress memikirkan masalh itu..... tapi jangan khawatir... aq ada tips untuk mensiasatinya


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TIPE BADAN LEBAR / GEMUK

Garis horizontal dan vertikal dibuat dengan lebar yang sama. Mana yang terlihat lebih kurus dan mana yang terlihat lebih gemuk?
Hindari Baju dengan Corak Garis Vertikal
Garis vertikal akan membuat Anda terlihat lebih lebar dan gemuk. Pilihlah garis horizontal untuk menghasilkan efek kurus. Padankan dengan jeans gelap atau celana bahan berwarna hitam untuk menegaskan kesan langsing.
Catatan : Penelitian terakhir menemukan bahwa efek psikologis corak garis pada baju yang diyakini selama ini ternyata kurang tepat. Dampak psikologis yang dipercaya adalah : garis horizontal menghasilkan efek lebar, sebaliknya garis vertikal menghasilkan efek kurus. Sedangkan penelitian tersebut membuktikan bahwa yang terjadi adalah sebaliknya, garis horizontal menghasilkan kesan kurus, dan garis vertikal menghasilkan kesan gemuk.
Beli Pakaian yang Pas di Badan
Jangan memakai baju yang ketat (press body). Juga jangan biasakan untuk memaki baju yang oversize. Kebiasaan kurang tepat pria berpostur besar adalah dengan menutupnya dengan kaos extra size. Ini hanya akan membuat anda terlihat lebih besar (terkecuali profesi Anda adalah rapper). Cukup pilih baju yang pas jatuh di badan, tidak terlalu besar (over size) dan tidak terlalu kecil.
Pilih Warna Senada untuk Baju dan Celana
Intinya adalah bagaimana membuat pandangan orang sekitar terhadap Anda mengalir dari atas ke bawah, sehingga badan terlihat proporsional (selain gemuk, juga panjang). Baju dan celana dengan 2 warna kontras, seperti hitam dan putih, menimbulkan kesan mencolok & memisahkan badan menjadi 2 bagian (bagian atas dan bawah), sehingga postur Anda terlihat besar. Pilih warna-warna yang senada dalam padu padan baju dan celana.
Hindari Baju/Kemeja Berkerah Kecil
Baju berkerah kecil ataupun turtleneck (kerah menutupi leher) membuat postur tubuh terlihat gempal dan pendek. Sebaliknya, Baju dengan kerah berbentuk V (V-neck) membuat postur terlihat lebih langsing. Dan juga membuat anda terlihat memiliki leher yang panjang.
Perhatikan Pilihan Sablon / Corak
Jangan memakai baju dengan corak / sablon terlalu ramai. Karena akan menarik perhatian dan mengalihkan pandangan ke bagian perut Anda (yang lebar). Tterkecuali Anda sedang berlibur ke pantai Hawaii.

De-suggestopedia

De-suggestopedia is an approach to education whose primary objective is to tap the extraordinary reserve capacities we all possess but rarely if ever use. This method utilises techniques from many sources of research into how best we can learn. The Bulgarian scientist, Dr. Georgi Lozanov, for example, has demonstrated that through a carefully “orchestrated” learning environment including most importantly a specially-trained teacher, the learning process can be accelerated by a factor of three to ten times enjoyably. Such results are possible through the proper use of suggestion. The suggestive-desuggestive process allows students to go beyond previously held beliefs and self-limiting concepts concerning the learning process and learn great quantities of material with ease and enjoyment.
The artful use of suggestion as a means of facilitating the learning and communication process is, of course, and has always been, a part of nearly all effective teaching and persuasive communication. Not until the past twenty years, however, has the phenomenon of suggestion begun to be methodically researched and tested as to how it can and does affect learning. At the centre of these developments is the work of Lozanov. For more than 20 years he has been experimenting with accellerative approaches to learning, has founded the Institute of Suggestology in Sofia, Bulgaria and has authored the book: Suggestology and the Outlines or Suggestopedia (Gordon and Breach, New York, 1997).
SUGGESTOPEDIA is the study of these suggestive factors in a learning situation.
We are constantly, surrounded by suggestive influences. If we study them and become aware of them, then we are in a better position to “choose” which ones we want to influence us. Lozanov maintains that a suggestopedic teacher spends most of the time de-suggesting the students, i.e., freeing them from any nonfacilitating influences from their past. From birth on we are influenced by parents, friends, teachers, society, the media, the weather, the food we eat and the political environment in which we live.
Successful classroom atmosphere
For a successful classroom atmosphere, Lozanov maintains these three elements should be present:
PSYCHOLOGICAL
A nurturing, supportive atmosphere in which the student feels free to try out the new information, be inventive with it, make mistakes without being put down, and, in general, enjoy the learning experience.
EDUCATIONAL
The material should be presented in a structured fashion, combining the Big Picture, Analysis and Synthesis. Every moment should be a didactic experience even when the learning process is not that apparent.
ARTISTIC
The classroom should not be cluttered with too many posters and unnecessary objects, otherwise we don’t see them. We go into overwhelm. Good quality pictures should be displayed and changed every few days. Music can be played as the students enter the room, and during the breaks. Plants and flowers add to a pleasant atmosphere. If the chairs are arranged in a U-shape, there is a better communication possible between the teacher and students and among the students themselves.
Music
Music as a suggestive, relaxing medium. Lozanov researched a wide variety of means for presenting material to be learned which would facilitate the mentally relaxed, receptive state of mind he had found to be optimal for learning.
Yoga exercises, breathing techniques, special speech intonations were all tried with varying degrees of success. None of them, however, was found acceptable by nearly all cultural norms and belief systems.
Music proved to be the ideal medium, both for the purpose or creating a mentally relaxed state and for providing a vehicle for carrying the material to be learned into the open, receptive mind.
Music can become a powerful facilitator of holistic full-brain learning. After conducting numerous controlled experiments using a wide variety of music, Lozanov concluded that music of the Classical and Early Romantic periods was most effective for the first presentation of material to be learned. The music of Hayden, Mozart and Beethoven is dramatic, emotionally engaging, and ordered, harmoniously structured. It stimulates, invites alertness, and its harmony and order evoke ease and relaxation. For the second concert presentation of material Lozanov found that Baroque music was especially suited. The music of Bach, Händel, Vivaldi, Telemann, Corelli (among others) has a less personal, more rigorously structured quality, providing a background of order and regularity which supports very well the more straight-forward presentation of material during the second concert.
Means of Suggestion
1. A carefully orchestrated physical environment: an uncrowded room, aesthetically pleasing, well lighted, plants, fresh air, …
2. The teacher / doctor thoroughly trained in the art of suggestive communication -
a) with a well-developed sense of authority. (more details below)
b) the ability to evoke a receptive, playful-, child-like state in the students / patients
c) a mastery or double-plane behaviour, especially the ability to use appropriately and purposefully suggestive language, voice intonation, facial and body expression
3. Music:
4. Carefully integrated suggestive written materials.
5. Visual stimuli: posters, pictures, charts, illustrations.
The arts offer us the greatest examples of unified suggestive expression, and we should make every effort to integrate them into the learning environment.
The goals of teacher who use desuggestopedia
To accelerate the process of learning a foreign language for everyday communication
To desuggest learners’ psychological barriers
To activate learners’ ‘paraconscious’ part of the mind
The role for the students and the teacher
The teacher’s role:
authority—being confident and trustable
security—affording a cheerful classroom atmosphere
The students’ role:
relaxed—following the teacher’s instruction easily role play—enjoying in the new identity freely

The feelings of the students
Relaxed--psychological barriers are desuggested.
Confident--the target language comes naturally.
--Success is obtainable.
Secure--assumption of a new identity